A complete 8th grade homeschool curriculum

1. Unit 1: Exponents, Powers, and Scientific NotationThis unit builds exponent notation from scratch: what a power actually means, the three rules for combining powers with the same base, then the strange-but-necessary extension to zero and negative exponents, and finally scientific notation for very big and very small numbers. It ends with comparing unfamiliar real-world quantities by their order of magnitude.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Positive integer exponent notation (base, exponent, power)Evaluate numerical expressions with positive integer exponents using order of operations.
   • Laws of exponents (product, quotient, power-of-a-power rules)Apply the product-of-powers, quotient-of-powers, and power-of-a-power rules to simplify expressions with a single common base.
   • Conditions under which the product-of-powers and quotient-of-powers rules applyDistinguish expressions where an exponent rule applies (same base) from superficially similar expressions where it does not (different bases, or addition instead of multiplication).
   • The zero and negative exponent extension of the integer exponent patternExplain why extending the pattern of decreasing exponents forces the definitions a^0 = 1 and a^-n = 1/a^n.
   • Scientific notation as a decimal times a power of 10Convert numbers between standard form and scientific notation for very large and very small numbers.
   • Arithmetic operations on numbers in scientific notationPerform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers expressed in scientific notation, including cases requiring re-normalization of the leading digit.
   • Order-of-magnitude comparison of quantities in scientific notationCompare the order of magnitude of two unfamiliar real-world quantities given in different units, without being told which quantities to compare or which operation applies.
   • The logical necessity of the zero/negative exponent extension across all nonzero basesGeneralize the exponent rules to justify why a rule that holds for positive integer exponents must also hold for exponent zero and negative integers, using an argument that would apply to any base.
   • Common exponent-rule errors embedded in a worked solutionCritique a flawed worked example that misapplies an exponent rule (e.g. adding exponents with different bases, or mishandling a negative exponent's sign) and identify precisely where the reasoning fails.
2. Unit 2: The Real Number SystemStudents learn that not every number can be written as a clean fraction or a decimal that ends or repeats — these are the irrational numbers, and square roots of most whole numbers are their main example. Kids learn to estimate these roots without a calculator, place them accurately on a number line, and justify why a number is or isn't rational.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Perfect squares up to 225 and their square rootsGiven a whole number, identify whether it is a perfect square, and if so, state its square root.
   • Square root and cube root notation applied to perfect squares/cubesEvaluate square roots of perfect squares and cube roots of perfect cubes without a calculator.
   • The irrationality of square roots of non-perfect squaresExplain why the square root of a non-perfect-square must be irrational, using the definition of rational number as a ratio of integers.
   • The rational/irrational classification of numbers presented in varied formsClassify a given number as rational or irrational based on its decimal expansion or its form (fraction, perfect-square root, non-perfect-square root, known constant like pi).
   • Tenths-level estimation of irrational square roots using bounding perfect squaresEstimate the value of a non-perfect-square root to the nearest tenth by reasoning between consecutive perfect squares.
   • Justified placement of irrational numbers on a number linePlace an unfamiliar irrational number on a number line and justify the placement in writing using bounding rational numbers.
   • Ordering of mixed rational and irrational numbersCompare and order a mixed set of rational and irrational numbers (fractions, decimals, roots, pi) from least to greatest.
   • The rational/irrational status of a genuinely novel numeric claimGiven a real-world claim about an unfamiliar irrational number (e.g. a newly defined constant), determine whether it could be rational, and justify the determination without prior exposure to that specific number.
   • The limits of a finite decimal display as evidence of rationalityGiven only a decimal expansion with no visible pattern (e.g. from a calculator display truncated at 10 digits), decide whether the number could still be rational and identify what additional information would be needed to know for certain.
3. Unit 3: Linear Equations in One VariableKids extend equation-solving to messier equations — variables on both sides, distributing and combining like terms — and confront the fact that solving an equation can honestly end in 'no solution' or 'every number works,' not just a single number. The core image is a balance scale: whatever you do to one side, you do to the other.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • One- and two-step linear equations in one variableGiven a one- or two-step equation like 3x + 5 = 20, execute the correct sequence of inverse operations to find x.
   • Distribution and combining like terms in multi-step equationsGiven an equation requiring distribution and combining like terms, apply both procedures in the correct order to isolate the variable.
   • Equations with variables on both sidesGiven an equation with variables on both sides, transform it into an equivalent equation with the variable on one side.
   • The no-solution case as a logical outcome of equation-solvingExplain why solving an equation to a false numerical statement (like 3 = 5) means the equation has no solution.
   • The three solution-count cases (one, none, infinite) for linear equationsClassify an equation as having one solution, no solution, or infinitely many solutions by examining its structure before fully solving.
   • The invariant structure underlying the no-solution case across different-looking equationsCompare two structurally different equations that both simplify to 'no solution' and identify what they share.
   • Real-world contexts modeled by one-variable linear equationsTranslate a real-world scenario describing two changing costs or quantities into a linear equation and solve for the unknown.
   • Solution-count reasoning applied to a novel geometric/measurement contextGiven an unfamiliar word problem about strips of tape with unknown overlap, determine whether the situation forces a unique length, no possible length, or any length, and justify the classification.
   • Structural cues (coefficient and constant relationships) that determine solution countGiven a set of four equations with matched surface complexity, sort them by solution count using structural reasoning rather than full solving.
   • Like terms in an algebraic expressionRecall the definition of like terms and identify them within a multi-term expression.
4. Unit 4: FunctionsThis is where 'a rule that takes an input and gives exactly one output' gets formal. Students learn to spot a function in a table, a graph, an equation, or a description, use the vertical line test, and — the hard part — recognize when a table and a graph are actually describing the exact same function.8 skills ▸close ▾

   • The definition of function as one output per inputGiven a set of ordered pairs or a table, determine whether it represents a function by checking whether any input repeats with a different output.
   • The vertical line test as a graphical criterion for the function definitionApply the vertical line test to determine whether a graph represents a function, including jagged, piecewise, and curved graphs.
   • Equivalence of a function across table and graph representationsGiven the same function presented as a table and as a graph, determine whether they represent the same rule by comparing corresponding input-output pairs.
   • Rate of change as a constant difference indicating a linear functionGiven a function's equation, generate a table of input-output pairs and identify whether the rate of change between consecutive rows is constant.
   • Rate of change and initial value as representation-independent quantities usable for comparisonGiven two functions in two DIFFERENT representations (e.g. one as a table, one as a verbal description), determine which has the greater rate of change by extracting rate of change and initial value from each.
   • Construction of a function rule from an unstructured verbal description, including a non-constant rate caseGiven a real-world situation described in words with a changing rate at a threshold (e.g. a billing plan), construct a piecewise function rule and justify whether it is linear over its full domain.
   • The distinction between co-variation and a valid function ruleExplain, using a specific counterexample, why a graph that co-varies smoothly can still fail the function definition.
   • Linear versus nonlinear classification using rate-of-change evidenceClassify a set of real-world scenario descriptions as representing linear or nonlinear functions based on whether their rate of change is constant.
5. Unit 5: Transformations, Congruence, Similarity, and the Pythagorean TheoremThis long unit replaces 'these shapes look the same' with an actual argument. Kids define congruent and similar precisely — congruent means one figure can be slid, flipped, or turned onto the other; similar adds resizing. They build up the Pythagorean theorem from an area diagram they construct themselves, then use it for distances, including between two points on a coordinate grid.12 skills ▸close ▾

   • Translations described by coordinate rules, e.g. (x,y) -> (x+3, y-2)Given a figure on a coordinate grid and a translation rule, plot the image and state the coordinates of each vertex.
   • Coordinate rules for reflections over axes and other linesState the coordinate rule for a reflection over the x-axis, the y-axis, or a given horizontal/vertical line, and apply it to a figure.
   • The distinction between rigid motions and dilations with respect to distance and angle preservationExplain why distance between vertices is preserved under translations, reflections, and rotations but not under dilations, while angle measures are preserved under all four transformation types.
   • Congruence as the existence of a rigid-motion sequence between two figuresGiven two figures on a grid, generate and describe a sequence of rigid motions that maps one onto the other, and use that sequence to justify that the figures are congruent.
   • Similarity as a rigid-motion sequence plus one dilation, with scale factor unknown at the outsetGiven two similar figures where the scale factor is not stated, determine the dilation scale factor and center that maps one to the other, then complete the congruence sequence to confirm similarity.
   • Angle pair relationships formed by a transversal crossing parallel linesUse informal angle arguments (vertical, corresponding, alternate interior) to find unknown angle measures when parallel lines are cut by a transversal.
   • The triangle angle-sum theorem, justified via parallel-line angle relationshipsConstruct an informal argument, using a transversal through a triangle's vertex, that the interior angles of any triangle sum to 180 degrees.
   • An informal proof of the Pythagorean theorem based on area conservationUsing an area-based diagram (e.g. rearrangement of four congruent right triangles inside a square), explain why a squared plus b squared equals c squared for any right triangle.
   • Unknown side lengths of right triangles in applied problems (ladders, screens, ramps)Apply the Pythagorean theorem to find an unknown leg or hypotenuse length in a right triangle presented in a real-world context.
   • The converse of the Pythagorean theorem as a test for a right angleDetermine whether a triangle with three given side lengths is a right triangle, using the converse of the Pythagorean theorem.
   • Distance between two coordinate points via a constructed right triangleCompute the distance between two points on the coordinate plane by constructing a right triangle from the segment and applying the Pythagorean theorem.
   • Selecting and combining transformation reasoning and the Pythagorean theorem in an unfamiliar applied contextGiven a real-world scenario with no diagram (e.g. two ships' positions given as coordinates, or a 3-D box diagonal), decide independently which combination of transformation and/or Pythagorean reasoning applies and solve it.
6. Unit 6: Linear Relationships: Slope, Proportionality, and SystemsSlope stops being 'rise over run' memorized as a ratio and becomes a proven fact: similar triangles cut from the same line always have proportional sides, which is why a straight line has one constant rate of change everywhere on it. From there, students graph lines using slope-intercept form, separate proportional relationships (which pass through the origin) from linear ones that don't, and take their first pass at systems of two equations — solving by graphing, then by substitution.13 skills ▸close ▾

   • Similar-triangle justification for constant slope on a non-vertical lineGiven two triangles formed under a line by drawing legs parallel to the axes at two different points, explain why the triangles are similar and why this forces the rise-over-run ratio to be constant.
   • The slope formula (y2-y1)/(x2-x1) applied to two coordinate pointsCalculate the slope of a line from two given points using the slope formula.
   • Proportional relationships graphed as lines through the origin, with slope equal to unit rateGraph a proportional relationship from a table or equation and identify the slope as the unit rate.
   • Unit rate comparison across mixed representations of proportional relationshipsCompare two proportional relationships given in different representations (table, graph, equation, verbal description) to determine which has the greater rate.
   • Slope-intercept form as a graphing and interpreting toolDerive and use slope-intercept form y = mx + b to graph a line given its equation, and explain what m and b represent in a real context.
   • The origin test distinguishing proportional from non-proportional linear relationshipsClassify a given linear relationship as proportional or non-proportional by testing whether it passes through the origin.
   • The intersection point of two graphed lines as the system's solutionEstimate the solution to a system of two linear equations by graphing both lines and reading the intersection point.
   • The meaning of an intersection point as a shared input-output pair in a modeled contextExplain what the intersection point of two lines means in terms of the two real-world quantities each line represents.
   • The substitution method for solving a 2x2 linear systemSolve a system of two linear equations algebraically using substitution, showing all steps.
   • Strategic variable selection prior to substitutionGiven a system where neither equation has an isolated variable, decide which variable to isolate and justify the choice before solving by substitution.
   • The one/none/infinite solution cases for a linear system, linked to identity and contradiction equationsDetermine whether a system has one, no, or infinitely many solutions by comparing slopes and intercepts, and connect each case to Unit 3's one-variable equation outcomes.
   • System-of-equations modeling of a scenario from an unpracticed domainGiven a real-world scenario with two unstated relationships, drawn from a domain not used in this unit's pricing- and motion-based worked examples (e.g. population growth, mixture/concentration problems, or tank fill/drain rates), generate and solve a system of equations that models it, choosing an appropriate method and justifying the choice.
   • Structural reasoning about simultaneous intersection using slope and intercept comparisons rather than computationGiven three graphed lines with no context, determine which two intersect at a point that also lies on the third, and explain how you know without computing coordinates.
7. Unit 7: Systems of Linear Equations: Modeling and ApplicationThis unit takes the systems skills from Unit 6 and points them at real situations — two constraints on the same two quantities at once. Students write systems from word problems, choose between graphing and substitution and defend the choice, and interpret what a system's solution (or lack of one) actually means in context.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • The solution of a system as a point satisfying both equations simultaneouslyGiven a system of two linear equations, identify whether an ordered pair satisfies both equations by substitution and checking.
   • The intersection point of two graphed lines as the system's solutionGraph two linear equations on the same coordinate plane and identify the intersection point as the system's solution.
   • The substitution method for solving systemsSolve a system of two linear equations using substitution when one equation is already solved for a variable.
   • The relative efficiency of graphing versus substitution as solution methodsCompare the graphing and substitution methods for a given system and justify which is more efficient for that specific system.
   • Translation of a two-constraint real-world context into a system of equationsWrite a system of two linear equations from a real-world context describing two constraints on the same two quantities.
   • The real-world meaning of a system's solution pointInterpret the intersection point of a graphed system in terms of the original context, stating what quantity and value it represents.
   • The relationship between slope/intercept comparison and the number of solutions of a systemClassify a system as having one solution, no solution, or infinitely many solutions by comparing slopes and y-intercepts without fully solving.
   • The real-world meaning of no-solution and infinite-solution systemsExplain, using context, why a system with no solution represents two constraints that can never both be true, and why infinitely many solutions represents the same constraint stated two ways.
   • The full modeling cycle from context to justified system solutionGiven an unfamiliar two-constraint scenario with non-integer or fractional intersection values, construct, solve, and justify a system, choosing a method and defending that choice.
   • The no-solution condition extended to standard-form equationsGeneralize the condition for a system having no solution to systems written in standard form, without being shown that form during instruction.
8. Unit 8: Bivariate Data and Lines of FitReal data is messy — points scattered around, not sitting neatly on a line. This unit teaches kids to spot a trend anyway, draw and compare lines that follow that trend, write the line's equation, use it to predict, and know that a prediction from a trend is not a guarantee for any one point. It also extends the same thinking to categorical data in two-way tables.12 skills ▸close ▾

   • Patterns of association in scatter plots (positive, negative, none)Given a scatter plot, classify the pattern as positive, negative, or no association.
   • Linear vs. nonlinear association, clusters, and outliers in bivariate dataDescribe, in words naming both variables, whether a scatter plot shows a linear or nonlinear pattern and note clusters or outliers.
   • Informal line of fit placementDraw a straight line that follows the trend of a scattered but linear-associated dataset.
   • Criteria for judging quality of a line of fitCompare two candidate lines of fit on the same scatter plot and justify which follows the trend more closely, citing specific points.
   • Slope-intercept equation of a fitted lineWrite the equation of a fitted line in slope-intercept form and identify the slope and y-intercept from a graph.
   • Contextual meaning of slope and intercept in a bivariate data modelInterpret the slope and y-intercept of a fitted line as statements about the real-world variables, including units.
   • Interpolation using a line of fit, and reasonableness of predictionGiven a new x-value within the data range, use a fitted line's equation to predict a y-value and judge whether the prediction is reasonable.
   • Two-way tables and relative frequency for categorical bivariate dataConstruct a two-way table from categorical data and calculate relative frequencies by row and column.
   • Association between categorical variables via relative frequency comparisonUse relative frequencies in a two-way table to argue whether an association exists between two categorical variables.
   • Complete line-of-fit modeling process applied to a novel datasetGiven an unfamiliar real dataset with two numeric variables never used in instruction, construct a scatter plot, fit a line, and justify the fit using evidence from the data.
   • Evaluation of another student's line-of-fit reasoning against data evidenceCritique a peer's completed line-of-fit analysis (plot, line, and interpretation) and identify a specific improvement, using no formula for a 'correct' answer.
   • The distinction between a statistical trend and an exact linear ruleExplain why a line of fit predicts a trend rather than an exact value for any individual data point.

Try a real Pre-Algebra: Foundations for Algebra I lesson, no account needed →

1. Unit 1: Reading the Architecture of a Story: Structure and Dramatic IronyYour child learns that the order a story reveals things in is a choice the author made on purpose, not just how it happened to come out. They'll learn to tell apart three kinds of irony, spot foreshadowing and flashback, and talk about how sentence length changes how fast a scene feels. All of this uses short, well-known public-domain stories — Poe, Saki, 'The Lottery' author Shirley Jackson's contemporaries, that kind of thing — because short stories make these moves easy to point at.8 skills ▸close ▾

   • The distinction between dramatic, situational, and verbal irony based on the information gap between reader, character, and speakerGiven a short scene, students distinguish dramatic irony from situational irony and verbal irony by identifying who knows what.
   • The authorial choice of when to reveal information to the reader relative to a character, and its effect on suspenseStudents explain why an author chose to reveal a piece of information to the reader before a character discovers it, citing the specific line where the gap opens.
   • Foreshadowing as a structural device that plants information ahead of a later payoffStudents locate an instance of foreshadowing in a new short story and explain what later event it prepares the reader for.
   • Flashback and nonlinear structure as a deliberate reordering of chronological events for effectStudents reconstruct the chronological order of events in a story told with a flashback, then explain why the author chose the non-chronological order instead.
   • Pacing as an authorial choice realized through sentence length, scene length, and detail densityStudents compare the pacing of two short stories' climactic scenes and explain how sentence length and scene length affect the reader's sense of speed.
   • Multiple-meaning academic vocabulary specific to narrative structureStudents determine the intended meaning of a multiple-meaning structural term (e.g., 'climax', 'exposition', 'resolution') from its context in a story discussion.
   • The relationship between an author's structural choice (irony, foreshadowing, flashback, or pacing) and the reader effect it produces, applied to an unfamiliar textGiven an unseen public-domain short story, students identify two distinct structural choices the author made and explain the effect each produces on the reader, using textual evidence for both.
   • The generalizable relationship between information-order and genre effect, applied beyond stories taught in this unitStudents predict how a familiar fairy tale's meaning would change if the narrator revealed the villain's plan to the reader from the start, without having been taught this specific transformation.
2. Unit 2: Claim, Evidence, and the Shape of an ArgumentThis unit splits a question kids usually smash together: is this argument convincing, versus is this argument actually right. They learn to spot claims, counterclaims, and rebuttals, name the appeal a sentence is using (ethos, pathos, logos), name a fallacy when one shows up, and — the hard part — separate how confidently something is written from how well it's actually supported.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Claim and counterclaim as distinct structural parts of an argumentGiven a short persuasive paragraph, identify the sentence that states the claim and the sentence that states a counterclaim.
   • Rebuttal as a response move that either concedes or refutes a counterclaimClassify a given rebuttal sentence as either conceding a point or refuting it.
   • The distinction between evidence relevance and evidence sufficiencyExplain why a piece of evidence is relevant to a claim but insufficient by itself to support it.
   • Ethos, pathos, and logos as categories of rhetorical appealClassify persuasive sentences by the rhetorical appeal (ethos, pathos, logos) they primarily use.
   • Hasty generalization, false cause, and ad hominem as named reasoning errorsIdentify which named logical fallacy (hasty generalization, false cause, ad hominem) is present in a short argument passage.
   • The independence of persuasive delivery from evidentiary soundnessGiven a persuasive text that is delivery-strong but evidence-weak, distinguish the effect of its delivery from the strength of its reasoning.
   • Reasoning soundness and evidence sufficiency applied to an unfamiliar text and formatGiven an unseen persuasive text on a novel topic and in a novel format (e.g., a product review or a speech transcript), evaluate whether its reasoning is sound and its evidence sufficient, without any topic-specific pre-teaching.
   • Organizational planning of an argument essay including one addressed counterclaimPlan a 4-5 paragraph argument essay that states a claim, addresses one counterclaim, and organizes evidence by relevance to each reason.
   • Explicit linkage between evidence and the reason it supports within a paragraphDraft and revise an argument essay paragraph so that each piece of evidence used is explicitly linked to the reason it supports.
   • Generalizable criteria for evidence sufficiency across topics and genresGiven two arguments on entirely unrelated topics and in different genres than practiced in class, generalize and state the general criteria that make evidence sufficient regardless of topic.
3. Unit 3: Writing to Explain: Organizing Information for a ReaderYour child learns that an explainer essay is a series of organizing decisions, not a bucket to dump facts into. They study four ways to organize information — comparing things, cause and effect, problem and solution, and straight chronological order — and practice matching the pattern to the content, writing a thesis that previews the pattern, and revising a full draft for organization before ever touching a comma.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Organizational patterns in informative text: comparison, cause-effect, problem-solution, chronologicalGiven two short informative paragraphs, identify which organizational pattern (comparison, cause-effect, problem-solution, chronological) each uses.
   • The relationship between sentence order and organizational pattern within a paragraphExplain why a given paragraph's sentence order supports or weakens its stated organizational pattern.
   • Thesis statements that forecast organizational structureDraft a thesis statement for an informative essay that forecasts the organizational pattern the essay will follow.
   • Synthesis of information from two sources into one organizational patternGiven two nonfiction sources on one topic that partly agree and partly diverge, select and combine information into a single organized paragraph.
   • Transitions as structural signals specific to each organizational patternChoose transitions that signal the specific organizational pattern in use, distinguishing them from generic connectors.
   • The distinction between revising for organization and editing for correctnessGiven a complete draft essay, distinguish a revision for organization from an edit for correctness by identifying which category a proposed change belongs to.
   • Organizational revision of a student's own informative draftRevise a full draft informative essay to strengthen its organizational pattern, using peer feedback that names a specific location where the pattern breaks.
   • Pattern selection for an untaught topic and source pair, justified against alternativesGiven an unfamiliar topic and two brand-new sources never discussed in class, decide which organizational pattern best fits and justify the choice against the two other plausible patterns.
   • Mid-essay organizational pattern shifts in an unfamiliar mentor textGiven a mentor essay from a domain never studied in class (e.g., sports statistics or music history), identify where the writer shifted organizational patterns mid-essay and evaluate whether the shift helped or hurt clarity.
4. Unit 4: Irony and Structure at Scale: Reading a Full-Length DramaYour child reads a full-length play — something like the stage version of 'The Diary of Anne Frank' — act by act, tracking how the dramatic irony set up early keeps building by the final act. They also compare the printed script to a filmed or staged version to see that a director's choices (pacing, staging, what's shown or hidden) are separate from the playwright's choices.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Dramatic irony within a single scene of the assigned playGiven a scene from the play, identify what the audience knows that a character on stage does not know.
   • Structural vocabulary: dramatic irony, foreshadowing, structural choiceRecall the definitions of dramatic irony, foreshadowing, and structural choice as established in Unit 1.
   • The compounding effect of a specific withheld piece of information across acts of the assigned playExplain how a single piece of withheld information, introduced in an early act, changes in effect by a later act as other events accumulate around it.
   • Stage direction (text) versus directorial staging choice (production) as distinct structural toolsCompare how the playwright's stage directions and a director's staging choices in a filmed/live version each control what the audience perceives at a given moment.
   • The relationship between theme development and structural sequencing in the assigned playAnalyze how the development of a central theme in the play depends on structural choices made about when information is revealed.
   • Presence or absence of dramatic irony in a previously unseen dramatic excerptGiven a scene from an unread play excerpt, determine whether dramatic irony is present and justify the determination using evidence of what the audience versus the character knows.
   • An original dramatic scene using dramatic irony as a deliberate structural deviceConstruct an original short dramatic scene, for a genre or setting not covered in class, that uses dramatic irony to develop a theme, and justify the structural choices made.
   • The relationship between foreknowledge of an ending and the interpreted meaning of the playTake and defend a position, using textual evidence, on whether knowing how the play ends changes what the play is about.
   • Organization of cross-act textual evidence into an analytic essay about dramatic irony's developmentOrganize evidence of an irony thread across multiple acts into a coherent written argument about its structural development.
5. Unit 5: Writing Narrative: Structure and Craft in the Student's Own StoryYour child switches from reading structure and irony to producing it. They plan, draft, and revise a short personal or fictional story, working on stretching a moment into a scene, writing dialogue that reveals character without stating it, and making one deliberate choice about withholding information or using a flashback.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • The distinction between scene and summary in narrative pacingDistinguish scene from summary in a mentor-text excerpt by marking which passages stretch time and which compress it.
   • Conversion of narrative summary into scene through added concrete and sensory detailConvert a summarized moment from a student's own planned narrative into a scene using concrete and sensory detail.
   • Dialogue that reveals character indirectly through word choice and subtextWrite a dialogue exchange between two characters that reveals a specific character trait without stating that trait directly.
   • The effect of chronological versus reordered (flashback) structure on reader experienceCompare a chronologically plotted version of a small moment with a reordered (flashback) version and explain how each changes what the reader wonders or feels.
   • Deliberate withholding of information as a structural choice with an intended reader effectDecide whether and where to withhold a specific piece of information from the reader in a planned narrative, and justify the choice by its effect on the reader.
   • Self-identification of an underdeveloped structural or craft choice in one's own draftDuring a one-on-one conference, identify one structural or craft choice in your own draft that is not yet doing what you intend, using teacher questioning rather than teacher correction.
   • Revision targeted at a single named structural or craft element, as distinct from editing for correctnessRevise a full draft by making a targeted change to one structural or craft element identified in conference, leaving unrelated sentence-level errors uncorrected.
   • Conventions of dialogue punctuation and standard grammarApply grade-level conventions for punctuating dialogue and correct grammar errors in a finished draft during a dedicated editing pass.
   • Identification and inferred effect of withheld information in an unfamiliar narrative excerptGiven an unfamiliar short narrative excerpt never discussed in class, identify where the writer withheld information and infer the likely effect on a first-time reader.
   • The relationship between structural choice (pacing, withholding, ordering) and honesty or distortion in narrating true eventsArgue whether a true personal story can be told dishonestly through structural choices alone, using at least one example from a text studied this year and one from your own drafting experience.
6. Unit 6: Text and Context: Reading Historical Fiction Against the Historical RecordYour child reads a historical fiction book alongside real primary sources from its time period and asks what the actual history explains about choices the author made. They learn to tell context (the world the book was written and set in) apart from content (what the book actually says), and primary sources apart from secondary ones.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Primary vs. secondary source classificationGiven a document, students classify it as a primary or secondary source and name the evidence for that classification.
   • The mechanical placement of a sentence into the content column or the context column, using the two-column chart taught on Day 5Given a novel passage already split into a modeled content/context chart, students identify which column a new sentence from the same passage belongs in.
   • Context vs. content distinction in a historical fiction passageStudents explain the difference between a text's context (conditions under which it was written or set) and its content (what it states), using a specific passage as evidence.
   • The link between a specific structural choice in the assigned novel and a documented historical constraintStudents infer why a historical fiction author made a specific structural choice (e.g., withholding a character's knowledge) by connecting it to a documented historical constraint of the period.
   • Points of factual or interpretive disagreement between a historical fiction passage and a primary source describing the same eventStudents compare a historical fiction passage and a primary source on the same event, identifying where they disagree on fact or interpretation and what each writer's purpose or position explains about the disagreement.
   • Structural choice explained by historical context, in a novel period and pairing never taughtGiven an unfamiliar historical fiction excerpt and an unfamiliar primary source from a period not studied in class, students identify one structural choice the historical context plausibly explains.
   • The content/interpretation boundary applied to a disputed claim about historical accuracy in fictionStudents critique a claim that a historical fiction author 'got it wrong' by checking whether the disputed detail belongs to content (checkable fact) or authorial interpretation (defensible choice).
   • A structural choice in the assigned novel, accounted for by evidence from a primary sourceStudents produce a comparative essay connecting one structural choice in the assigned historical fiction text to a primary source from its setting, explaining what the historical constraint accounts for.
   • An original historical-fiction scene using narrative craft moves within a researched historical constraintStudents draft an original historical-fiction scene applying at least two Unit 5 craft moves (dialogue, sensory detail, pacing) within a historically constrained setting they researched.
7. Unit 7: Competing Arguments: Reading Two Sides of the Same QuestionYour child now takes the argument vocabulary from Unit 2 and the historical-framing vocabulary from Unit 6 and applies both to pairs of texts that argue honestly to opposite conclusions using overlapping facts. The real skill is comparing what evidence each side chose to include and how they framed it — not just deciding who's right.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Argument vocabulary: claim, counterclaim, evidence sufficiency, rhetorical appeal, logical fallacyStudents correctly define claim, counterclaim, evidence, rhetorical appeal, and logical fallacy when given examples from a retrieval worksheet.
   • Logical fallacies (slippery slope, ad hominem, false cause) and rhetorical appeals (ethos, pathos, logos) as directly modeled in the Day 2 worked examplesStudents label the fallacy or rhetorical appeal in a passage using the same worked examples shown in the reteach, matching term to the example format practiced that day.
   • Logical fallacies (e.g. slippery slope, ad hominem, false cause) and rhetorical appeals (ethos, pathos, logos) in unfamiliar passagesStudents identify which named fallacy or rhetorical appeal appears in a short passage lifted from a new text pair.
   • Evidence selection as the mechanism of honest disagreement between two argumentative texts on one topicStudents explain how two texts on the same topic select different evidence to support opposite honest conclusions.
   • Historical framing of an argument: how era and audience shape evidence selectionStudents explain how the historical moment each text was written in shapes what evidence the author had access to or chose to foreground.
   • Soundness of reasoning and sufficiency of evidence in a single argumentative textStudents evaluate whether the reasoning in a given argumentative text is sound and whether its evidence is sufficient, citing specific lines.
   • Fair representation of an opposing argument, isolated from rebuttalStudents draft a fair, one-paragraph summary of a position they personally disagree with, without inserting a rebuttal.
   • Distinguishing factual disagreement from interpretive disagreement between two unfamiliar textsGiven a brand-new pair of texts on a topic never discussed in class, and with no same-day teaching of the factual/interpretive distinction, students determine where the disagreement is factual versus interpretive.
   • Synthesis argument essay integrating fair representation, evaluation, and a defended personal positionStudents plan and write a synthesis essay that fairly represents two opposing arguments, evaluates each, and defends their own position using evidence from both.
   • Transfer of the compare-evaluate-position routine to a self-located, unassigned text pairStudents apply the fair-representation-then-evaluation routine to a real-world argument pair found outside class (e.g. two op-eds on a current issue).
8. Unit 8: Research and Argument: Building a Claim from Multiple SourcesThis is the year's biggest project: your child picks a research question, evaluates several sources for credibility, organizes evidence into a grid by sub-claim, chooses an organizing pattern that fits the evidence, drafts and revises a multi-paragraph paper, and defends their source choices out loud.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • The scope of a research question relative to a topicNarrow a broad topic into a focused, answerable research question.
   • Source credibility criteria (authorship, purpose, date) via lateral readingDetermine whether a given source is credible by checking authorship, purpose, and publication date using lateral reading.
   • The difference between a credibility problem and an interpretive disagreement between sourcesDistinguish a source that disagrees due to bias or unreliability from one that disagrees due to a legitimate difference in interpretation.
   • A multi-source synthesis grid organized by sub-claimSynthesize evidence from three or more sources into a synthesis grid organized by sub-claim.
   • The fit between an organizational pattern (cause-effect, problem-solution, compare-contrast) and a specific evidence setSelect an organizational pattern for a research paper that fits the relationships among the sourced evidence, not just the topic.
   • The distinction between surface paraphrase and genuine restatementExplain why a paraphrase that changes only surface wording still counts as plagiarism.
   • A body paragraph integrating multiple cited sources under one sub-claimDraft body paragraphs that integrate cited evidence from multiple sources to support one sub-claim per paragraph.
   • Structural revision of a draft paragraph versus surface proofreadingRevise a draft paragraph by reordering or replacing evidence to strengthen the fit between claim and organizational pattern, not just correcting errors.
   • The justification for a specific source's inclusion and use in the paperDefend a source choice orally by explaining why it was credible and how it was used to support a specific sub-claim.

Try a real Structure, Irony, and Argument: Grade 8 English Language Arts lesson, no account needed →

1. Unit 1: The Particle Model of MatterThis is the foundation for the entire year: matter is made of atoms and molecules in constant motion, and that one idea explains why solids hold their shape, why gases spread out, what temperature actually is, and what happens during melting or evaporation. It starts with heavily worked examples and diagrams, then gradually asks your child to draw and explain things on their own.12 skills ▸close ▾

   • Atoms and molecules as the building blocks of all matterStudents state that all matter, living and nonliving, is composed of atoms and that molecules are combinations of bonded atoms.
   • Particle arrangement and motion in solids, liquids, and gasesStudents draw and label a particle diagram for a given state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas), showing correct relative spacing and motion.
   • The relationship between particle spacing/motion and macroscopic state behaviorStudents explain why a solid keeps its shape while a gas fills any container, connecting the observable behavior to particle spacing and motion.
   • Density as mass per unit volume, linked to particle spacingStudents calculate density from mass and volume and predict relative density from a particle-spacing diagram before calculating.
   • Density as evidence for distinguishing substances that look alikeStudents use measured density data to argue whether two visually identical unknown substances are the same material, citing evidence.
   • Temperature as average particle kinetic motionStudents explain temperature as a measure of average particle motion rather than a fixed property of a substance.
   • Conservation of particle number during phase changeStudents model a phase change (melting, freezing, evaporation, or condensation) showing that particle count is conserved while arrangement and spacing change.
   • Conservation of particle number applied to an untaught phase-change contextStudents apply the conservation-of-particle-count idea to a phase change not drilled in class (e.g., sublimation of dry ice, condensation on a cold glass), showing the belief transfers beyond the practiced case.
   • The distinction between phase change and chemical change at the particle levelStudents distinguish evaporation of a substance from a chemical change into a new substance, rejecting the 'turned into a different gas' explanation.
   • Generalization of the particle model to untaught states of matterStudents predict and justify the particle-level behavior of an unfamiliar state or material never discussed in class, using taught spacing/motion rules.
   • Synthesis of particle spacing, motion, and conservation to explain a novel scenarioStudents write a claim-evidence-reasoning explanation connecting particle spacing, motion, and conservation for a self-selected real-world phase-change scenario not directly modeled.
   • Textual evidence supporting a scientific claim about phase changeStudents cite specific textual evidence from an informational science text to support a claim about particle behavior during a phase change.
2. Unit 2: Chemical Reactions and Conservation of MassChemical reactions rearrange atoms into new substances, but they don't create or destroy them — so in a sealed system, total mass doesn't change even when a reaction is clearly happening. This is the same particle idea from Unit 1, now applied to reactions instead of states of matter.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Persistence of individual atoms across a chemical reaction, shown in particle diagramsGiven a labeled particle diagram of reactants and products, students identify which colored circles (atoms) appear in both, showing no atom is added or removed.
   • The distinction between closed and open systemsStudents state the definition of a closed system versus an open system using their own example of each.
   • Evidence that distinguishes chemical change from physical changeStudents classify a list of observed changes (color change, gas bubbles, dissolving, melting, precipitate forming) as evidence of chemical change or evidence of physical change.
   • Conservation of mass in closed versus open systems during a gas-producing reactionStudents explain why the measured mass of an open-cup baking soda and vinegar reaction decreases while the same reaction in a sealed bag shows no measured change.
   • Conservation of mass applied to a novel closed-system reaction not used in instructionStudents predict the total mass reading of an unfamiliar closed-system reaction (e.g., an Alka-Seltzer tablet dissolving in a sealed bottle) before it occurs, and justify the prediction using atom conservation.
   • Shared evidence of chemical change across reactions occurring at very different ratesStudents compare a rusting nail (slow reaction) and a burning match (fast reaction) to identify which features both share as evidence of chemical change.
   • Conceptual word-equation representation of chemical reactions with atom tallyingStudents write a conceptual word equation for a given reaction (reactants arrow products) and check that every atom type is represented in both reactants and products using a tally.
   • Exothermic versus endothermic classification from textual evidence in an unfamiliar sourceGiven an unfamiliar reaction description in a short science news article, students determine whether it is exothermic or endothermic using textual evidence about temperature change.
   • A novel everyday phenomenon evaluated for chemical change and mass-conservation evidence, using no in-class exampleStudents design a testable procedure to determine whether an everyday phenomenon not discussed in class (e.g., a glow stick, a rusting bike chain, dough rising) involves a chemical change, and predict what mass evidence would support their claim.
   • The error in claiming atoms are destroyed to explain apparent mass lossStudents critique a peer's claim that 'the mass disappeared because the reaction destroyed some atoms,' identifying the specific reasoning error.
3. Unit 3: Forces and Newton's LawsThis unit builds Newton's three laws starting from something concrete — comparing how objects move on ice versus carpet — before naming any law or introducing any formula. It ends with your child diagramming forces and calculating acceleration using F=ma for situations they haven't seen before.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Balanced vs. unbalanced forces on a moving objectGiven a diagram of an object on ice and one on carpet, students identify which forces are present and classify each pair of forces as balanced or unbalanced.
   • Newton's first law (inertia) and its relation to frictionStudents state Newton's first law and use it to explain why a rolling ball on ice travels farther than one on carpet.
   • Net force calculation from multiple force vectors on one axisGiven force magnitudes and directions on a diagram, students calculate net force for two-and three-force scenarios along a single axis.
   • The F=ma relationship among force, mass, and accelerationStudents rearrange F=ma algebraically to solve for mass or acceleration when force and one other variable are given, in unfamiliar numeric contexts.
   • Application of Newton's second law to an unfamiliar mechanical contextGiven a real-world scenario not covered in class (e.g. a person on a moving airport walkway, a skateboarder on a hill), students predict acceleration direction and magnitude trend using F=ma reasoning without being told which law applies.
   • Newton's third law as a general structure across dissimilar contextsStudents compare two interaction-pair scenarios (a swimmer pushing off a wall; a rocket expelling exhaust) and identify the shared structure of Newton's third law across both.
   • Construction of an interaction pair from a single given forceGiven a labeled diagram of one force on an object, students generate the correct interaction-pair force: same magnitude, opposite direction, acting on the other object.
   • Validity of a free-body diagram against the physical scenario it representsStudents critique a flawed force diagram (with a missing normal force or a misdirected friction arrow) and identify what physical reasoning error produced it.
   • Synthesis of Newton's three laws into one design justificationGiven a completely novel design problem (a cargo container that must not slide during truck braking), students generate and justify a force-based design constraint using all three laws together.
4. Unit 4: Energy: Forms, Transfer, and ConservationEnergy shows up in different forms — motion, height, heat, stretch — and moves between them, but the total amount in a closed system never actually goes away, even when it becomes harder to use (like spreading out as heat). This unit builds from spotting energy forms, to calculating kinetic and potential energy, to work as force times distance, to heat and efficiency.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • Kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, and thermal energy formsClassify a described situation (falling rock, stretched rubber band, moving car, hot coffee) by which energy form(s) are present.
   • The kinetic energy equation and its non-linear dependence on speedCalculate kinetic energy using KE = 1/2 m v^2 given mass and speed, and explain why doubling speed quadruples KE while doubling mass only doubles it.
   • The relationship between an equation's exponent structure and its graphical shapeCompare two graphs of KE vs. mass and KE vs. speed for the same object and explain why one is linear and the other is not, connecting the shape to the exponent in the formula.
   • Work as force multiplied by distance in the direction of forceDetermine work done on an object given force and distance, and judge whether work was done in a scenario where force is applied but no displacement occurs (e.g., pushing on a locked door).
   • Heat transfer direction and thermal equilibrium at the particle levelExplain, using a particle-motion account, why heat always flows from a warmer object to a cooler one until thermal equilibrium, not the reverse.
   • Conservation of total energy across transformations in an unfamiliar closed systemGiven a novel closed-system scenario never discussed in class (e.g., a wind-up toy running down, a meteor burning up on entry), generate an energy-transformation account that conserves total energy and identifies where energy disperses.
   • Energy dispersal versus energy destruction in a bouncing-ball systemCritique a claim that a bouncing ball 'loses energy' each bounce by identifying what actually happens to the energy, using evidence from a ball-drop investigation the student did not conduct.
   • Efficiency as a ratio of useful output energy to total input energyCalculate the efficiency of an energy-conversion device (e.g., a lightbulb or a toy motor) as useful energy output over total energy input, expressed as a percentage.
   • Energy dispersal patterns across sections of a mechanical energy systemDesign and justify a claim, supported by data from their own roller-coaster energy lab, about which section of the track had the greatest energy dispersal to thermal energy, then apply this reasoning to predict the outcome for a track design they did not test.
5. Unit 5: Waves: A Model for Energy TransferWaves move energy from place to place without moving the matter itself very far — a cork bobs up and down as a water wave passes but doesn't travel with it. This unit builds that idea with ropes and slinkies, and introduces amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and the wave speed formula v = fλ.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Amplitude and wavelength as features of a transverse wave diagramGiven a labeled transverse wave diagram, students identify amplitude and wavelength by pointing to the correct features.
   • The definition and unit of frequencyStudents recall the definition of frequency as the number of wave cycles per second, in hertz.
   • The causal link between particle-to-particle collision and mechanical wave propagationStudents explain why a mechanical wave requires a medium, using the particle model of matter from Unit 1.
   • The distinction between longitudinal and transverse particle motionStudents classify a given wave demonstration (slinky push-pull vs. rope shake) as longitudinal or transverse based on the direction of particle motion relative to wave travel.
   • The wave speed relationship v=fλStudents calculate wave speed given frequency and wavelength using v=fλ, substituting correct units.
   • The difference between particle oscillation and net energy transport in a waveStudents compare a floating cork's motion to the wave's apparent forward motion, distinguishing particle oscillation from energy transfer.
   • Superposition of two wave pulses on a shared mediumStudents predict what happens when two wave pulses traveling toward each other on the same rope meet, and justify the prediction using particle motion.
   • Reflection of a mechanical wave at a media boundaryStudents construct an explanation for why a wave reflects at a boundary between two different media, applying the particle model.
   • The relationship among wave speed, frequency, and wavelength across a medium changeGiven a novel scenario (a wave crossing from a fast to a slow medium at constant frequency), students infer what must happen to wavelength, with no worked example provided.
   • Common errors in measuring amplitude and wavelength on a diagramStudents critique a peer's wave diagram labeling for a specific, named error (e.g., measuring amplitude crest-to-trough instead of crest-to-rest).
6. Unit 6: Sound and the Behavior of Mechanical WavesSound is the hands-on, testable example of the wave ideas from Unit 5. This unit gets your child to actually measure frequency and amplitude from real sound traces, and pins down the difference between pitch (frequency) and loudness (amplitude), which kids very often mix up.8 skills ▸close ▾

   • Wavelength and amplitude as distinct measured features of a wave diagramGiven a labeled waveform diagram, identify which distance represents wavelength and which represents amplitude.
   • The frequency formula applied to counted wave cycles over a measured time intervalCalculate the frequency of a sound wave in hertz given the number of cycles and elapsed time, using the formula frequency = cycles / time.
   • The causal mechanism by which sound requires a medium of particles to compress and rarefyExplain why a sound wave cannot travel through a vacuum, using the particle-collision mechanism of a longitudinal wave.
   • The independence of pitch (mapped to frequency) and loudness (mapped to amplitude) as separate wave propertiesGiven two waveform traces differing in either frequency or amplitude (not labeled), determine independently which trace has higher pitch and which is louder, citing the specific wave feature that supports each claim.
   • Timbre as the additional wave complexity (overlapping frequencies) beyond the fundamental frequency and amplitudeCompare the waveform of the same musical note played on two different instruments and explain why the note sounds different despite matching pitch and loudness.
   • Resonance as a match between a driving frequency and an object's natural frequencyPredict which of several described objects (a wine glass, a bridge, a swing) is most likely to resonate at a driving frequency, and justify the prediction using the concept of natural frequency.
   • An original experimental design isolating frequency as a variable independent of medium, for unfamiliar sound sourcesDesign a controlled test to determine whether an observed pitch difference between two mystery sound sources is caused by a difference in frequency or a difference in medium, using only measurement tools available in class.
   • The sequence of wave emission, reflection, and detection described in a technical text about sonar/ultrasoundRead a short technical passage on how sonar or ultrasound imaging uses reflected sound waves, and summarize the sequence of energy transformations described.
7. Unit 7: Light: Waves Without a MediumAfter two units establishing that mechanical waves need a medium, this unit opens with the twist: light doesn't. It moves from that core contrast through the electromagnetic spectrum, then into how light reflects and refracts at boundaries, and finally into why a prism splits white light into colors it was already carrying.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • The medium requirement difference between light and sound wavesStudents will state that light can cross a vacuum while sound cannot, citing the vacuum bell jar demonstration as evidence.
   • The mechanism distinguishing electromagnetic waves from mechanical wavesStudents will classify a given wave (radio, X-ray, sound, water wave, seismic wave) as electromagnetic or mechanical based on whether it needs a medium.
   • The law of reflection (angle of incidence equals angle of reflection)Students will construct a ray diagram showing the angle of incidence equal to the angle of reflection for a given light ray and mirror.
   • The structural difference between reflection and refraction at a boundaryStudents will compare a light ray reflecting off a mirror to a light ray refracting into water and describe what differs between the two cases before the rule is named.
   • The causal relationship between medium speed change and the direction of light bendingStudents will predict the direction a light ray bends when moving between two media of stated relative speed, and justify the prediction using the speed-change cause.
   • The wavelength-based explanation of prism dispersionStudents will explain, using the two-prism recombination evidence, that a prism separates wavelengths already present in white light rather than creating color.
   • The causal link between a wave's medium requirement and its behavior at a boundaryStudents will justify, for a novel scenario not used in instruction, why light crosses a medium boundary differently than sound does, connecting the medium-free mechanism to the boundary behavior.
   • An experimental method for detecting a wave's medium dependenceStudents will design a test, using only classroom materials, that would distinguish whether an unknown wave requires a medium to travel.
   • The inverse relationship between wavelength and frequency across the electromagnetic spectrumStudents will order seven electromagnetic wave types by wavelength and relate wavelength to frequency across the spectrum.
8. Unit 8: Electricity and MagnetismThe year closes by applying the particle model one more time — to charge instead of mass or energy. Students move from static charge to building circuits to magnetism, always tracking what happens to charge (moves, never created or destroyed) the same way they tracked mass and energy earlier in the year.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Charge transfer as the cause of static electricityExplain a static electricity observation (comb and paper) using charge transfer between objects.
   • Conservation of chargeState that charge is conserved: it moves between objects but is never created or destroyed.
   • The distinction between current and voltageDistinguish current and voltage using the water-flow analogy in a labeled circuit diagram.
   • A closed series circuitDiagram a closed series circuit that lights a bulb, given a battery, wire, and switch.
   • Current paths in series versus parallel circuitsPredict which bulbs stay lit when one bulb fails in a given series or parallel circuit, by tracing current paths.
   • Non-contact force, comparing magnetism and static electricityCompare magnetic force and static electric force as two examples of non-contact force.
   • Electromagnetism: current producing a magnetic fieldExplain why running current through a coiled wire produces a magnetic field, using the particle model of current.
   • Electromagnet applications in an unfamiliar device contextDesign a novel device (not shown in class) that uses an electromagnet to solve a stated problem, and justify the design using current and field concepts.
   • Current path and voltage difference in an unfamiliar real-world scenarioExplain an unfamiliar electrical safety scenario (e.g., why a bird can sit on a power line unharmed) using the current-path and voltage-difference model.
   • The integrated circuit-and-static-electricity performance taskBuild and diagram a working closed circuit, predict the effect of a stated circuit change, and explain a static electricity observation, integrating all unit models.

Try a real Physical Science: Matter, Energy, and Interactions lesson, no account needed →

1. Unit 1: Encounter and ColonizationThis is where the whole year starts: real Indigenous nations with governments and land, European colonizers chartered to make money, and two different systems of forced labor that get confused with each other constantly. Your child will meet the vocabulary — charter, sovereignty, indentured servant, chattel slavery, triangular trade — that every single later unit assumes they already have.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Territorial extent of named Indigenous nations and European colonial claims, 1600Locate and label at least four Indigenous nations' territories and three European colonial claims on a map of North America circa 1600.
   • The governing structure of a specific named Indigenous nation prior to contactExplain how the political organization of one named Indigenous nation (e.g., the Haudenosaunee Confederacy) governed decision-making before European contact.
   • The Columbian Exchange as a bidirectional transfer of goods, organisms, and diseaseCompare the direction and category of items exchanged in the Columbian Exchange (plants, animals, disease, people) between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia.
   • The profit motive embedded in colonial charter languageInfer the economic motive behind a specific colonial charter's language, given an excerpt naming investors and expected returns.
   • The legal distinction between indentured servitude and chattel slaveryDifferentiate indentured servitude from chattel slavery on the specific bases of contract duration, inheritability of status, and legal status as property.
   • The relationship between regional climate/cash crop and dominant colonial labor systemExplain why labor systems differed across New England, Middle, and Southern colonies by connecting each region's climate and cash crop to its dominant labor source.
   • Author's perspective and purpose in an unfamiliar primary sourceDetermine an unnamed primary source's likely author's perspective and purpose using internal textual evidence, for a source type not previously modeled in class.
   • The incompleteness of a single-perspective colonization narrativeCritique a single-source narrative of colonization (e.g., 'colonists settled empty land') by identifying what evidence it omits and what evidence would be needed to complete it.
   • The distribution of benefit and cost across groups during colonization, evidenced across four source typesGenerate a claim about who benefited and who paid during colonization, citing evidence from four sources of differing type and perspective (charter, Indigenous account/treaty, ledger, trade map).
   • The chronological sequence from first contact to established triangular tradeSummarize, in one paragraph, the sequence of events from first contact through the establishment of triangular trade routes.
2. Unit 2: The Road to RevolutionThis unit follows colonial protest as it escalates from specific complaints about specific British policies into a full claim of universal natural rights. Your child will trace the Stamp Act through the Tea Act as an escalation sequence, meet Locke and Paine, and take apart the Declaration of Independence's actual structure — not just its famous opening line.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Colonial charter rights and Navigation Acts trade restrictions from Unit 1Students identify the colonial charter rights and trade restrictions established in Unit 1 that later become the basis for grievances against Parliament.
   • The policy shift from salutary neglect to direct parliamentary enforcement after 1763Students explain how the end of salutary neglect changed the relationship between Parliament and the colonial assemblies.
   • The escalating pattern of colonial responses to the Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, and Tea ActGiven the Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, and Tea Act, students classify each colonial response (petition, boycott, violence) by its escalation level and justify the classification using textual evidence.
   • The shared natural-rights structure underlying Locke's political philosophy and Paine's Common SenseStudents compare Locke's natural rights philosophy with Paine's Common Sense argument to infer the shared abstract claim that government requires consent.
   • The four-part logical structure of the Declaration of IndependenceStudents summarize the four-part structure of the Declaration of Independence (preamble/rights claim, grievances, prior appeals, resolution) using their own words.
   • The logical relationship between specific grievances and the Declaration's natural rights claimGiven six grievances from the Declaration, students rank the three strongest in support of the natural rights claim and explain why the remaining three are comparatively weaker.
   • The differing views of legitimate authority held by Loyalists and Patriots describing the same eventsStudents differentiate a Loyalist's reasoning from a Patriot's reasoning when both describe the same 1774-1776 event, attributing each stance to a distinct view of legitimate authority.
   • The logical adequacy of grievances in an unfamiliar colonial petition, evaluated by the same evidentiary criterion used for the DeclarationStudents critique whether a set of grievances in an unfamiliar 18th-century colonial petition (not the Declaration) logically supports a claim of unjust rule, applying the same ranking criterion used for the Declaration.
   • The adequacy of the Declaration's grievances as support for its independence claimStudents generate an argument, using evidence from the Declaration, evaluating whether the colonists' grievances justify the claim of a right to independence.
   • The four required structural elements of the summative essay (grievances, rights claim, evaluation, evidence)Students check their own essay draft against the four required structural elements and identify which element is missing or underdeveloped before submitting.
3. Unit 3: Founding a Government: The Constitution and the Bill of RightsThis is the unit where your child learns why the framers deliberately built a government that divides and checks its own power instead of concentrating it. It starts with the Articles of Confederation's real failure, builds up separation of powers, checks and balances, and federalism as the fix, and ends with amendment-by-amendment reading of the Bill of Rights.8 skills ▸close ▾

   • The structural weaknesses of the Articles of ConfederationExplain why the Articles of Confederation failed to hold the new nation together, citing at least two specific structural weaknesses (no power to tax, no executive, no national court, unanimity for amendment).
   • Enumerated, reserved, and concurrent powers under federalismClassify a given federal action (e.g., declaring war, issuing a driver's license, coining money) as an enumerated, reserved, or concurrent power.
   • The interaction between separation of powers and checks and balancesExplain how separation of powers and checks and balances work together using a specific example (e.g., presidential veto, Senate confirmation, judicial review) not used in the original class example.
   • The structural similarity between the Great Compromise and the Three-Fifths CompromiseCompare the Great Compromise and the Three-Fifths Compromise as instances of the same pattern: avoiding a direct answer to a disputed question by splitting the difference.
   • The specific prohibition or requirement in a named Bill of Rights amendmentGiven the actual text of a specific amendment (1-10), state in the student's own words what government is prohibited or required to do.
   • The allocation of authority across branches and levels of government under the ConstitutionDetermine, for a novel modern-style scenario never discussed in class, which branch and which level of government has authority, and cite the specific Article or Amendment text that supports the answer.
   • The dual function of the Bill of Rights as limitation on government and enumeration of citizen powerArgue, in writing with cited textual evidence, whether the Bill of Rights functions primarily as a limit on government or as a grant of power to citizens, addressing at least one amendment that could support each reading.
   • Definitions of separation of powers, federalism, and checks and balancesRecall the definitions of separation of powers, federalism, and checks and balances using precise unit vocabulary.
4. Unit 4: The Early Republic: Testing the New GovernmentNow the Constitution Unit 3 built gets tested against real disputes: judicial review invented through Marbury v. Madison, the Hamilton-Jefferson bank fight, South Carolina's nullification claim, and Indian Removal — where a Supreme Court win for the Cherokee Nation did not stop the Trail of Tears.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • The absence of explicit judicial review language in Article III of the ConstitutionGiven a excerpt from Article III, state what the Constitution's text does and does not say about judicial review.
   • Marshall's reasoning chain in Marbury v. Madison establishing judicial reviewExplain how Chief Justice Marshall's reasoning in Marbury v. Madison (1803) established judicial review as an implied power.
   • Loose versus strict construction as applied to the national bank debateCompare Hamilton's and Jefferson's constitutional arguments for and against the national bank.
   • Loose versus strict construction as a transferable interpretive frameworkApply the loose-versus-strict construction distinction to a constitutional dispute the unit did not cover, such as a modern federal spending question.
   • The distinction between nullification and secession as constitutional claimsDifferentiate nullification's constitutional claim from secession's constitutional claim.
   • The enforcement gap between a Supreme Court ruling and executive/state action during Indian RemovalInfer why Jackson could enforce a policy of removal despite the Worcester v. Georgia ruling against Georgia's authority over Cherokee land.
   • The chronological sequence of federal Indian Removal policy 1830-1838Summarize the sequence of events from the Indian Removal Act (1830) through the Trail of Tears.
   • The gap between legal ruling and enforcement in the Cherokee removal caseCritique the gap between the Worcester v. Georgia ruling and the actual outcome for the Cherokee Nation, using a federal order, the ruling, and a Cherokee petition.
   • The general relationship between judicial rulings and enforcement across differing branches of governmentGeneralize, beyond the cases studied, a claim about when Supreme Court rulings succeed or fail to change government behavior.
5. Unit 5: Expansion and Its CostsYour child traces U.S. territorial growth from the Louisiana Purchase through the Mexican Cession and asks who actually paid for it. Manifest Destiny gets read as an argument some Americans made, not a fact, by putting it next to Cherokee and Mexican accounts of the same land.8 skills ▸close ▾

   • Vocabulary of territorial expansion (cession, annexation, popular sovereignty)Students state, from memory, the definitions of cession, annexation, and popular sovereignty as used in territorial expansion.
   • Territorial boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase, Mexican Cession, and Missouri Compromise lineStudents locate the Louisiana Purchase, Mexican Cession, and Missouri Compromise line on a blank U.S. map using only latitude/longitude and state borders as reference.
   • Conflicting accounts of territorial acquisition (U.S. official narrative vs. Indigenous/Mexican accounts)Students explain why the U.S. government and Cherokee or Mexican sources describe the same territorial acquisition differently.
   • Categories of territorial-expansion cost (displacement, slavery expansion, political compromise)Students classify specific historical events (Louisiana Purchase, Indian Removal, Mexican-American War, Missouri Compromise) as instances of land displacement, labor/slavery expansion, or political compromise, given a mixed list.
   • The compromise pattern across the Great Compromise, Three-Fifths Compromise, and Missouri CompromiseStudents compare the Missouri Compromise to the Three-Fifths Compromise and the Great Compromise, explaining what each deferred rather than resolved.
   • The economic relationship between cotton agriculture, land demand, and support for territorial expansionStudents infer, from a set of economic data on cotton and land prices, why Southern political interest in territorial expansion increased after 1820.
   • Application of the compromise-line pattern to an unfamiliar, hypothetical territoryGiven a map and three short primary sources about a hypothetical new territory the class has not studied, students propose and justify where a compromise line should be drawn.
   • Manifest Destiny as ideology versus political justificationStudents evaluate whether Manifest Destiny functioned primarily as a sincerely held belief or as a political justification, using evidence from at least two source types.
6. Unit 6: A House Dividing: Slavery and the Sectional CrisisThis unit argues, with evidence, that slavery was the material and political foundation of the sectional crisis, and that every 1850s compromise deferred the question rather than settling it. Your child moves from cotton-economy data through enslaved-authored sources into Kansas-Nebraska, Dred Scott, the Lincoln-Douglas debates, and the 1860 election.9 skills ▸close ▾

   • The cotton economy's dependence on chattel slavery and its ties to Northern industryStudents state the three-part economic relationship between cotton, the domestic slave trade, and Northern textile manufacturing using at least two specific figures from the unit's data set.
   • Authorship and perspective markers in 1850s slavery-debate primary sourcesStudents classify a list of primary source excerpts as enslaved-authored, abolitionist, or pro-slavery political, using stated authorship and internal textual clues.
   • The recurring structure of legislative compromise on slavery, 1787-1850Students compare the compromise structures of the Great Compromise, the Missouri Compromise, and the Compromise of 1850, explaining what each deferred rather than resolved.
   • The Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling's dual constitutional reasoning on citizenship and congressional power over territories, and its nationwide reach beyond the named partiesStudents explain why the Dred Scott ruling could be read as both a citizenship decision and a federalism decision, citing the majority opinion's own language, and state a specific consequence of each claim for a person who was never party to the case.
   • Visual argument and bias in an unfamiliar 1850s political cartoonGiven an unfamiliar 1850s political cartoon not shown in class, students infer which side of the sectional debate the cartoonist supported and identify the specific visual evidence for that inference.
   • Popular sovereignty as applied in the Kansas-Nebraska Act and Bleeding KansasStudents critique the claim that popular sovereignty was a neutral, democratic solution to the slavery question in Kansas, using evidence of exclusion and violence.
   • The feasibility of political compromise on slavery by 1860, argued from primary sourcesStudents construct a DBQ essay arguing whether compromise was still possible by 1860, using at least one enslaved-authored source, one political speech, and Dred Scott, with a thesis connecting all three.
   • The general pattern of deferred compromise applied to an unstudied sectional conflictGiven a new, previously unstudied sectional conflict (e.g., the 1859 tariff debate or a state's water-rights dispute framed as North-South), students generalize the pattern of deferred compromise to predict whether it would escalate or defuse tension.
   • The chronological sequence of major sectional-crisis events, 1850-1860Students recall the sequence of events from the Compromise of 1850 through the 1860 election in correct chronological order.
7. Unit 7: The Civil WarFollowing straight out of Unit 6's crisis, this unit follows the war itself and asks your child to hold a genuinely difficult idea: the war's purpose changed over time, from preserving the Union to also destroying slavery, and the Constitution had to stretch to fight it without breaking. The Emancipation Proclamation is the spine — read as an actual document, not the popular version of itself.12 skills ▸close ▾

   • Sectional-crisis vocabulary (secession, popular sovereignty, border states, nullification) and Article I/II powers languageStudents state the definitions of five Unit 6 sectional-crisis terms and three Unit 3 constitutional-powers terms with at least 80% accuracy on the Day 1 diagnostic.
   • Union and Confederate material resources and their strategic implicationsStudents compare Union and Confederate resources (population, industry, rail) and explain which advantages mattered most for a long war.
   • The relationship between material resources and chosen military strategyStudents explain why the Confederacy adopted a defensive strategy given the resource gap documented on Day 3.
   • Lincoln's stated public purpose for the war, 1861-1862Students trace the change in Lincoln's publicly stated war purpose from the 1861 First Inaugural to the 1862 Greeley letter, citing specific phrases.
   • The Emancipation Proclamation's stated geographic scopeStudents identify the Emancipation Proclamation's specific geographic exceptions by locating the exceptions clause in the primary text.
   • The gap between the Emancipation Proclamation's legal text and its popular reputationStudents explain what the Emancipation Proclamation immediately changed and did not change, connecting its text to its common popular description.
   • The accuracy of a popular claim about USCT combat role, tested against evidence from an engagement not covered in classStudents evaluate the claim that USCT regiments performed mostly labor rather than combat, using specific casualty data from an untaught engagement.
   • The constitutional text governing habeas corpus suspensionStudents locate the constitutional condition (Article I Section 9) required to suspend habeas corpus and check Lincoln's 1861 order against it.
   • The competing constitutional claims of security and individual liberty in the Merryman caseStudents construct an argument weighing the security case against the liberty case for wartime habeas corpus suspension, using constitutional text and the Merryman case as evidence.
   • The relationship between wartime executive actions and the peacetime constitutional powers they draw onStudents explain how a specific wartime action (habeas corpus suspension, conscription, or the Proclamation) stretched a specific Unit 3 constitutional power without eliminating its limits.
   • Application of the security-versus-liberty constitutional framework to a wartime case not covered in classGiven an untaught primary source describing a different wartime civil-liberties case, students apply the security-versus-liberty framework built in Lessons 12-13 to construct a new argument.
   • Civil War casualty data compared to other American warsStudents interpret Civil War casualty data to characterize the war's scale, citing at least two specific figures rather than an unsupported adjective.
8. Unit 8: Reconstruction: A Second FoundingThe closing unit asks whether Reconstruction changed the Constitution's text, the nation's actual practice, or both — and why that gap matters. It covers the two competing readmission plans, the three Reconstruction Amendments, the Freedmen's Bureau, Black political participation, Black Codes and early Jim Crow, and the Compromise of 1877.10 skills ▸close ▾

   • Presidential vs. Congressional Reconstruction plans (Ten Percent Plan, Wade-Davis Bill)Given the Wade-Davis Bill and Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan, state the specific readmission requirement each imposed on former Confederate states.
   • The conflict between presidential and congressional authority over ReconstructionExplain why Congress and President Johnson clashed over who held authority to set Reconstruction policy, using the federalism and separation-of-powers structure from Unit 3.
   • The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth AmendmentsCompare the specific protections and limits of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments against each other.
   • The conflict between state Black Codes and the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clauseGiven a Black Code statute and the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection text, judge whether the statute violates the amendment and justify the judgment with textual evidence from both.
   • The criteria distinguishing Black Codes from early Jim Crow measuresGiven an unfamiliar 1870s state law from a state not studied in class, determine whether it more resembles a Black Code or an early Jim Crow measure and justify using criteria developed in the unit.
   • The Freedmen's Bureau's functions and Black political participation during ReconstructionExplain how the Freedmen's Bureau and Black political participation (officeholding, voting) changed daily life in the postwar South, using at least two firsthand accounts.
   • The causal link between the Compromise of 1877 and the collapse of Reconstruction enforcementGiven the terms of the Compromise of 1877, infer why withdrawing federal troops effectively ended enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments in the South.
   • The recurring pattern of deferred-cost compromise across U.S. history to 1877Given the pattern of compromises studied across the year (Great Compromise, Missouri Compromise, Compromise of 1850, Compromise of 1877), generalize a rule about what kind of problem this era's compromises tended to avoid rather than solve.
   • The overall trajectory and outcome of Reconstruction (1865-1877)Construct a written argument judging whether Reconstruction should be judged a success, a failure, or an unfinished project, using amendments, legislation, and firsthand accounts as evidence.
   • The Reconstruction Amendments' names, numbers, and datesRecall the specific date range, key legislation names, and the numeric order of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments.

Try a real United States History to Reconstruction, with Civics lesson, no account needed →